The Relationship between Secular and Sacred Europe between 1500 and 1700

The Relationship between Secular and Sacred Europe between 1500 and 1700 The period between 1500 and 1700 is known as an Early Modern Period, it is considered to be the period between the Middle Ages and Contemporary world. It was the most significant period in the development of the Western Europe culture, in particular such countries as England, German, France and Spain.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Relationship between Secular and Sacred Europe between 1500 and 1700 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There were great changes in all spheres of human life: cultural, political, religious and scientific. The period is characterized by the growing secularism, development of the social and economic life. The period is characterized by contradictions between secular and religious power, the process that shaped the political and cultural life in Europe and became the most distinctive feature of the European society. Thus, there were two parallel lives in Europe: secular and sacred that in fluenced on other spheres of social development. The examples of the social changes can be found in a famous work by William Shakespeare Macbeth. In this essay, we will put a parallel between the work and distinctive features of the European society. So, the major features of the Early Middle Period between 1500 and 1700 include the growth of the bourgeoisie that developed relations with monarchs, changes in the family network. A particular feature of the Western Europe society was the decrease of the person’s status and change of the women’s status with was closely related to the husband’s work, moreover, many young women had to work to get endowment. The average age of people who got married rose because of the rise of education (young men had to finish their education) and young couples wanted to be independent of their families. Education became one of the prime necessities for men, consequently, the importance of schools and other educational establishments was exaggerated. Among the political events we can distinguish the following ones: German wars of religion, the conflict of king and parliament in England, War of Spain succession, etc. There were great changes in the religious life that was dependent on politics. For example, the defeat of the Roman Catholic Religion by Spain and France and a very significant episode in the English history when king Henry VIII declared himself a leader of the Church in order to get divorce.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Let us explore how religious reformation in the European society influenced on the future development of it. One of the greatest events in the field of religion and culture was the Protestant Reformation that greatly changed the attitudes to religion and politics, â€Å"In the second decade of the sixteenth century, the Christian church experienced the first in a series of religious divisions along geographic lines. The sequence of splits, beginning in the Holy Roman Empire and spreading to the whole of Europe by the end of the century, transformed the relationship of the reformed churches with state, society, and the individual† (Ferraro n. pg.). Two names mark this period, Martin Luther and John Calvin. The practices of indulgence were introduced into society. One could pay money and â€Å"reserve† place in the Haven. Thus, Church became dependant on government and higher layers of the society. The one who had money was â€Å"innocent† and the one who was poor was considered to be a â€Å"sinner†. Family and social lives were directed by the Catholic doctrines. There even were special rules of child’s upbringing. New family suggested that husband was a head of the family but all family responsibilities were divided between man and woman, it concerned a question of decision making and elevated the status of wife. We can find the example of this change in Macbeth when his wife, Lady Macbeth takes an active part in her husband’s activities. However, she is already not a classical obedient wife and has her own decisions to the problem. She is strong and independent woman who manipulates her husband. Thus, the change of relations between genders that occurred in the European society is reflected in the work. Shakespeare writes that she is a woman with a male soul, â€Å"undaunted mettle should compose / Nothing but males† (Shakespeare 75). However, we still notice that woman did not have full independence and she had to use other means to express her power. In Macbeth, she uses manipulation. The Protestant Reforms were not accepted by many people and they provoked a big number of wars of religion. The attempts to establish the power were made by church and could be observed in wars like French War of Religion and the English Civil War and a famous Glorious Revolution. These were the wars that are characterized by the conflicts between the â€Å"official† religions and new religions. The core idea of every war was the struggle for power and political dominance. In general, the church was more powerful then the king of the country and it was a basis for the conflicts and wars.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Relationship between Secular and Sacred Europe between 1500 and 1700 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The dominant position of religion influenced on the transformation of the traditional way of thinking. Christian beliefs and folk traditions were mixed and resulted in the formation of the â€Å"European vision of the natural world†. People believed in the supernatural powers and, in fact, were afraid of them. A terrible period of the witch-hunting is another page in the European history. It also shows the power of church in the social and cultural life of people. It was als o a result of lack of education among poor people. Witches were the enemies of society and church, they were considered to evil creatures that could destroy the society. We can also find the example of this â€Å"social and religious belief† in the work by William Shakespeare. These are the tree withes that provoke Lady Macbeth to commit a murder. Thus, the author shows a particular trait of society, moreover, he add a great significance to these three mystique personages of his work. In Macbeth, we found another characteristic of the Early Modern society. First of all, the real historical personages had become the main characters of the work. However, Shakespeare did not focus on a true history and used those personages in order to describe social and political relations of the ruling class. Rivalry, and betrayal were the common features of it. The fact that Macbeth killed a king was a common thing for that period. Many rulers passed the same paths to get their thrones and t hey did not have any religious superstitions. As it has already been mentioned, the religious beliefs influenced on all aspects of human life. The change of role of woman in the society is one of the major characteristics that became a distinctive feature of the Early Modern Europe. The Puritanism was a widespread religion that formed the orthodoxy view on woman. On the one hand, her position of a mother made her a pure creature (association with the mother of Christ), on the other hand, socially and economically she had not any freedom and was dependent on man and her family. Some changes were introduced when Henry VIII legalized divorce, however, woman did not have such right as she was not â€Å"an autonomous individual†. In addition, she was not allowed to get education and she could not participate in political life of the country. A paradox in attitude to women is another feature of the period. As it has already been mentioned, a woman had a certain degree of a religiou s purity, however, she was also considered to have unnatural powers, in other words, woman was often associated with a witch. However, in this period, we can see the seeds of rise of women’s rights and William Shakespeare describes them it his work. He describes a woman of a new period, however he is still not liberated of superstitions of his time and revels the supernatural character of woman’s nature. Thus, we can see that there was a great tension between the secular and religious power and authority in the early Modern European period. The confrontation between church and â€Å"officials† was a major characteristic of the European society. Between 1500 and 1700 there were special relations between secular and sacred.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Those reactions influenced on different aspects of human life, including cultural, social and politic development. One of the major characteristics of the society was an attitude to woman and her social role. We can find some of the characteristics of this society in the work by William Shakespeare, Macbeth. Ferraro, Joanne M. Early Modern Europe. Web. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth: a Tragedy. London: Mathews and Leigh., 1807

Inca Road System - 25,000 Miles Connecting an Empire

Inca Road System - 25,000 Miles Connecting an Empire The Inca Road (called Capaq Ñan or Qhapaq Ñan in the Inca language Quechua and Gran Ruta Inca in Spanish) was an essential part of the success of the Inca Empire. The road system included an astounding 25,000 miles of roads, bridges, tunnels, and causeways. Key Takeaways: The Inca Road The Inca Road includes 25,000 miles of roads, bridges, tunnels, and causeways, a straight line distance of 2,000 miles from Ecuador to ChileConstruction followed existing ancient roadways; Incas began improving it as part of its imperial movements by the mid-15th centuryWay stations were established at every 10–12 miles  Use was restricted to elites and their messengers, but commoners maintained, cleaned and repaired and set up businesses to cater to the travelersLikely nonelite access by miners and others Road construction began in the mid-fifteenth century when the Inca gained control over its neighbors and started expanding their empire. The construction exploited and expanded on existing ancient roadways, and it ended abruptly 125 years later when the Spanish arrived in Peru. In contrast, the Roman Empires road system, also built on existing roadways, included twice as many miles of road, but it took them 600 years to build. Four Roads from Cuzco The Inca road system runs the entire length of Peru and beyond, from Ecuador to Chile and northern Argentina, a straight-line distance of some 2,000 mi (3,200 km). The heart of the road system is at Cuzco, the political heart and capital of the Inca Empire. All the main roads radiated out from Cuzco, each named for and pointed in the cardinal directions away from Cuzco. Chinchaysuyu, headed to the north and ending in Quito, EcuadorCuntisuyu, to the west and to the Pacific coastCollasuyu, led southward, ending in Chile and northern ArgentinaAntisuyu, eastward to the western edge of the Amazon jungle According to historical records, the Chinchaysuyu road from Cuzco to Quito was the most important of these four, keeping the rulers of the empire in close touch with their lands and subject people in the north. Inca Road Construction Original Inca built canal and street in city of Ollantaytambo, Peru. Jeremy Horner / Corbis NX / Getty Images Plus Since wheeled vehicles were unknown to the Inca, the surfaces of the Inca Road were intended for foot traffic, accompanied by llamas or alpacas as pack animals. Some of the roadways were paved with stone cobbles, but many others were natural dirt pathways between 3.5–15 ft (1–4 meters) in width. The roads were primarily built along straight lines, with only a rare deflection by no more than 20 degrees within a 3 mi (5 km) stretch. In the highlands, the roads were constructed to avoid major curves. To traverse the mountainous regions, the Inca built long stairways and switchbacks; for lowland roads through marshes and wetlands they built causeways; crossing rivers and streams required bridges and culverts, and desert stretches included the making of oases and wells by low walls or cairns. Practical Concerns The roads were primarily built for practicality, and they were intended to move people, goods, and armies quickly and safely across the length and breadth of the empire. The Inca almost always kept the road below an altitude of 16,400 feet (5,000 meters), and where at all possible they followed flat inter-mountain valleys and across plateaus. The roads skirted much of the inhospitable South American desert coast, running instead  inland along the Andean foothills where sources of water could be found. Marshy areas were avoided where possible. Architectural innovations along the trail where difficulties could not be avoided included drainage systems of gutters and culverts, switchbacks, bridge spans, and in many places low walls built to bracket the road and protect it from erosion. In some places,  tunnels and retaining walls were built to allow safe navigation. The Atacama Desert Inca Road through the Atacama Desert. San Pedro de Atacama, Antofagasta Region, Chile (Lagunas Miscanti and Mià ±iques). Jimfeng / iStock / Getty Images Plus Precolumbian travel across Chiles Atacama desert could not be avoided, however. In the 16th century, the Contact-period Spanish historian Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo crossed the desert using the Inca Road. He describes having to break his people into small groups to share and carry food and water supplies. He also sent horsemen ahead to identify the location of the next available water source. Chilean archaeologist Luis Briones has argued that the famed Atacama geoglyphs carved into the desert pavement and on the Andean foothills were markers indicating where water sources, salt flats, and animal fodder could be found. Lodging Along the Inca Road According to 16th-century historical writers such as Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, people walked the Inca Road at the rate of about ~12-14 mi (20–22 km) a day. Accordingly, placed along the road at every 12–14 miles are tambos or tampu, small building clusters or villages which acted as rest stops. These way stations provided lodging, food, and supplies for travelers, as well as opportunities for trading with local businesses. Several small facilities were kept as storage spaces to support tampu, of many different sizes. Royal officials called tocricoc were in charge of the cleanliness and maintenance of the roads; but a constant presence that could not be stamped out were pomaranra, road thieves or bandits. Carrying the Mail Steps cut into the native mountainside for the Inca Road leading to Machu Picchu. Geraint Rowland Photography / Moment / Getty Images A postal system was an essential part of the Inca Road, with relay runners called chasqui stationed along the road at .8 mi (1.4 km) intervals. Information was taken along the road either verbally or stored in the Inca writing systems of knotted strings called quipu. In special circumstances, exotic goods could be carried by the chasqui: it was reported that the ruler Topa Inca (ruled 1471–1493) could dine in Cuzco on two-day-old fish brought in from the coast, a travel rate of about 150 mi (240 km) each day. American packaging researcher Zachary Frenzel (2017) studied methods used by Incan travelers as illustrated by Spanish chroniclers. People on the trails used rope bundles, cloth sacks, or large clay pots known as aribalos to carry goods. The aribalos were likely used for the movement of chicha beer, a maize-based mildly alcoholic beverage that was an important element of elite Inca rituals. Frenzel found that traffic continued on the road after the Spanish arrived in the same manner, except for the addition of wooden trunks and leather bota bags for carrying liquids. Non-State Uses Chilean archaeologist Francisco Garrido (2016, 2017) has argued that the Inca Road also served as a traffic route for bottom-up entrepreneurs. The Inca-Spanish historian Garcilaso de la Vega stated unequivocally that commoners were not permitted to use the roads unless they had been sent to run errands by the Inca rulers or their local chiefs. However, was that ever a practical reality of policing 40,000 km? Garrido surveyed a portion of the Inca Road itself and other nearby archaeological sites in the Atacama desert in Chile and found that the roads were used by the miners to circulate mining and other craft products on the road and to funnel off-road traffic to and from the local mining camps. Interestingly, a group of economists led by Christian Volpe (2017) studied the effects of modern expansions on the Inca road system, and suggest that in modern times, improvements in transport infrastructure have had a significant positive impact on various companies exports and job growth. Selected Sources Hiking the section of the Inca Road leading to Machu Picchu is a popular tourist experience. Contreras, Daniel A. How Far to Conchucos? A Gis Approach to Assessing the Implications of Exotic Materials at Chavà ­n De Huntar. World Archaeology 43.3 (2011): 380–97. Print.Garrido Escobar, Franciso Javier. Mining and the Inca Road in the Prehistoric Atacama Desert, Chile. University of Pittsburgh, 2015. Print.Garrido, Francisco. Rethinking Imperial Infrastructure: A Bottom-up Perspective on the Inca Road. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 43 (2016): 94–109. Print.Garrido, Francisco, and Diego Salazar. Imperial Expansion and Local Agency: A Case Study of Labor Organization under Inca Rule. American Anthropologist 119.4 (2017): 631–44. Print.Marsh, Erik J., et al. Dating the Expansion of the Inca Empire: Bayesian Models from Ecuador and Argentina. Radiocarbon 59.1 (2017): 117–40. Print.Wilkinson, Darryl. Infrastructure and Inequality: An Archaeology of the Inka Road through the Amaybamba Cloud Forests. Journal of Social Archaeology 19.1 (2019): 27à ¢â‚¬â€œ46. Print.